건강과 대안 » Infectious Diseases

[구제역] 2001년 영국 구제역, 로얄 소사이어티 보고서

건강과대안 — Tue, 04 Jan 2011 12:40:51 +0000

2001년 영국의 구제역 발생 및 전파, 그리고 방역대책을 다룬 로얄 소사이어티의
2002년 보고서 전문

Infectious diseases in livestock

Scientific questions relating to the transmission,
prevention and control of epidemic outbreaks of
infectious disease in livestock in Great Britain

Contents

Summary and main recommendations vii
1 Overview 1
(a) Introduction 1
(b) Origins of this inquiry 2
(c) The public background and the possibilities 4
(d) The issues of ‘disease-free’ status 5
References 7
2 The modern livestock industry 9
(a) General situation 9
(b) Cattle 11
(c) Sheep 12
(d) Pigs 12
(e) Poultry (excluding eggs) 13
(f) Horses 14
(g) Fish farming 14
(h) Exports 15
References 16
3 Infectious diseases of livestock 17
(a) List A and List B diseases and definitions 17
(i) Foot-and-mouth disease 18
(ii) Classical swine fever (CSF) 26
(iii) African swine fever (ASF) 27
(iv) Avian influenza (AI) 27
(v) Newcastle disease 28
(vi) Blue tongue (BT) and African horse sickness (AHS) 29
(b) Diseases affecting the main livestock sectors 30
(i) Cattle 30
(ii) Sheep 31
(iii) Pigs 32
(iv) Poultry 33
(v) Horses 33
(vi) Fish farming 35
(c) Conclusion and recommendations 35
References 36
4 The trading dimension 39
(a) The world trading framework and the role of the OIE and its reference laboratories 39
(b) Trading and ‘disease-free status’ 40
(c) Trading within the EU 40
5 Surveillance, biosecurity and livestock management 43
(a) Introduction 43
(b) The global threat 43
(i) FMD 44
(ii) Bluetongue virus 45
(c) International surveillance 45
(d) Imports: the rules for trade 46
(e) Imports: policing the frontiers 48
(f) National surveillance 49
(i) Responding to early warnings 49
(ii) Reducing animal movements 49
(iii) Surveillance on the farm: the farmer–veterinarian linkage 51
(iv) Reducing risk on the farm: biosecurity and livestock management practices 52
(g) Recommendations 54
References 55
6 Epidemiology, data and modelling 57
(a) Introduction 57
(b) Why are some outbreaks difficult to control? 58
(i) How do outbreaks grow and then decline? 58
(ii) The problem of early infectivity 59
(iii) The benefits of decisive interventions 61
(c) Management and analysis of the data 62
(i) What can analyses offer? 62
(ii) Data quality and data management 63
(d) Data requirements 64
(i) Case finding and contact tracing 64
(ii) Livestock demography and farm geography 64
(iii) Epidemiology of transmission 65
(iv) Control options, and their likely impact and logistical requirements 65
(e) Mathematical modelling 66
(i) Types of model 66
(ii) Developing and testing models 70
(iii) Use of models before the next outbreak 70
(iv) Use of models during an outbreak 70
(f) Future requirements 71
References 73
7 Diagnosis 75
(a) Introduction 75
(b) The general principles 75
(c) The specific diagnosis of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) 77
(i) Clinical diagnosis in the field 78
(ii) Laboratory diagnosis of the index case 78
(iii) Diagnosis during an outbreak 79
(iv) Surveillance after an outbreak 79
(d) Improved diagnostics and their potential application to the decentralisation of diagnosis 79
(i) The need for speed 79
(ii) PCR methods for the detection of nucleic acid 80
(iii) Detection of viral antigen and antibody by ELISA 81
(e) The prospect of novel approaches applied to diagnosis and disease control 81
(i) Biosensors—general 82
(ii) Biosensors and FMD 82
(f) Maintaining a state of preparedness 82
(g) Integrating diagnosis to rapid response 83
(h) General conclusions on diagnosis of other List A diseases 83
(i) Recommendations 84
References 84
8 Vaccination 87
(a) Introduction 87
(b) Elimination of infectious diseases by vaccines 87
(i) Experience of routine vaccination for FMD 88
(ii) The immune responses to viral infections 90
(iii) The immune response to viral vaccines 91
(iv) The economics of routine vaccination 93
(v) Key design features of vaccines 94
(c) Improving routine vaccines for FMD 96
(d) Emergency vaccination against FMD 97
(i) The carrier state 97
(ii) Are carrier animals infectious? 98
(iii) Discriminating between vaccinated and infected animals 99
(iv) Efficacy of emergency vaccines in an outbreak 100
(v) The role of vaccine banks 101
(vi) Exit strategies 102
(e) Vaccines against other exotic viral diseases of livestock 102
(i) High-risk diseases 102
(ii) Medium-risk diseases 104
(iii) Low-risk diseases 104
(f) Recommendations 105
References 105
9 Dealing with an outbreak: control measures and relevant wider issues 111
(a) Introduction and background 111
(i) Ethics and welfare issues 111
(ii) Environmental issues 112
(iii) Human health considerations 113
(iv) Resources 113
(v) Permanent standstill periods for all livestock 113
(vi) Increased levels of surveillance on farm 113
(vii) Technical input to the control of disease 114
(b) Key control measures that can be applied during an outbreak 115
(i) Enhanced biosecurity 115
(ii) Culling 116
(iii) Emergency vaccination 118
(iv) Special arrangements—zoos and rare breeds 121
(v) Requirements at end of outbreak 122
(c) Control of other diseases 122
Contol measures 123
(d) Contingency planning 123
Development of the control policy component within the contingency plan 124
(e) Recommendations 124
References 125
10 Research and development, education and training 131
(a) Research and development 131
(i) Introduction 131
(ii) Animal disease research in Britain 131
(iii) Current provision and issues 132
(iv) Resources 135
(b) Education and training 136
(i) Farmers and livestock keepers 136
(ii) Undergraduate veterinary education 136
(iii) Continuing professional development 137
References 139
Annex A: Terms of reference 141
Annex B: Conduct of the Inquiry 143
Annex C: List of those who gave evidence 147
Annex D: Glossary 157
Figures
2.1 Maps of livestock distributions in England 9
2.2 Land use in the UK 10
2.3 Value of UK livestock production (£ millions) in 1996 and 2000 10
2.4 Analysis of UK livestock holdings by size and total area 11
2.5 Numbers of livestock holdings, animals and average herd of flock size in the UK 11
2.6 UK livestock numbers in 1967 and 2000 11
2.7 Exports of livestock and livestock products from the UK (£ millions) 15
3.1 The 15 List A diseases and their incidences in the UK 17
3.2 Other notifiable diseases in the UK (excluding those of fish) 18
3.3 Maximum virus excretion/secretion routes in cattle 20
3.4 Most likely method of spread of FMD in each geographic area 21
3.5 Airborne spread of the FMD virus during the 1967–68 epidemic 22
3.6 Movement of FMD-infected animals before 23 February 2001, and locations of implicated
markets, abattoirs and dealers 23
4.1 Levels of ‘disease-free status’ for foot and mouth diseases (FMD) 41
4.2 General conditions for regaining disease-free status after an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease 41
4.3 Conditions for regaining disease-free status after an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. 41
5.1 The spread of Type O pan-Asia strain of FMD virus since 1990 44
5.2 Probability of purchasing one or more Mycobacterium paratuberculosis infected cattle, by number
and source of introduced cattle 54
5.3 Probability of purchasing one or more cows persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhoea,
by number and source of introduced cows 54
6.1 Local conditions determine the impact of a control policy 59
6.2 Development of virus in blood and breath relative to the appearance of clinical signs for a
typical FMD infection in a single cow 59
6.3 The development through time of the number of secondary infections generated from
one infected farm 60
6.4 Early and apparently harsh interventions can save animal lives in the long run 61
6.5 R0 map from the 2001 FMD epidemic. 63
6.6 Case histories of the use of models of infectious disease for understanding, planning and predicting 67
6.7 Some uses of models in understanding disease 69
7.1 Methods for virus detection used in human and veterinary medicine 76
8.1 Examples of successful human and veterinary vaccines 89
8.2 Estimated annual costs (£ millions) of routine FMD vaccination in the UK 94
8.3 Exotic viral diseases that pose a threat to UK livestock 103
9.1 The technical input to the decision-making process 115
9.2 Criteria to be taken into account when considering emergency vaccination 120
9.3 Biological properties of other List A viruses threatening the UK 126
10.1 Average number of research publications per year on livestock diseases during 1991–2001 134
10.2 Postgraduate qualifications in selected veterinary subjects, as at 31 December 2001 137

[살모넬라] FDA, 살모넬라증 감소 및 계란 안전 증진 위한 새로운 규제 발표

건강과대안 — Thu, 09 Jul 2009 02:18:15 +0000

미 FDA가 살모넬라 감염증 감소 및 계란의 안전 증진 위한 새로운 규제를 발표했습니다.
FDA의 최종 법령은 계란 제품(달걀, 오리알, 메추리알 등)을 통한 Salmonella enteritidis 감염을 막기 위해 양계장의 생산단계에서 예방적 조치를 취할 것과 계란 제품의 보관 및 수송 시 냉장보관을 할 것을 요구하고 있습니다.

살모넬라 감염증은 장염 등 소화기 증상과 급성 및 만성 관절염, 그리고 심할 경우 사망을 초래하기도 합니다.

FDA는 이번 새로운 규제조치가 시행되면 매년 79,000건의 식품이 원인이 되는 질환을 예방할 수 있을 뿐만 아니라 매년 살모넬라에 오염된 계란제품의 섭취에 의해 사망하는 30명의 목숨을 구할 수 있을 것으로 예상하고 있습니다.

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FDA: New Public Health Regulation To Improve Egg Safety And Reduce Salmonella Illnesses

Main Category: Infectious Diseases / Bacteria / Viruses
Also Included In: Regulatory Affairs / Drug Approvals; Nutrition / Diet

출처 : Medical News Today 08 Jul 2009 – 3:00 PDT
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/156728.php

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced a regulation expected to prevent each year 79,000 cases of foodborne illness and 30 deaths caused by consumption of eggs contaminated with the bacterium Salmonella enteritidis.

The final rule requires preventive measures during the production of shell eggs in poultry houses and requires subsequent refrigeration during storage and transportation.

Egg-associated illness caused by Salmonella is a serious public health problem. Infected individuals may suffer mild to severe gastrointestinal illness, short term or chronic arthritis, or even death. Implementing the preventive measures would reduce the number of Salmonella enteritidis infections from eggs by nearly 60 percent.

“Preventing harm to consumers is our first priority,” said Margaret A. Hamburg, M.D., Commissioner of Food and Drugs. “Today’s action will prevent thousands of serious illnesses from Salmonella in eggs.”

Salmonella enteritidis can be found inside eggs that appear perfectly normal. If the eggs are eaten raw or undercooked, the bacterium can cause illness. Eggs in the shell become contaminated on the farm, primarily because of infection in the laying hens.

The rule requires that measures designed to prevent Salmonella enteritidis be adopted by virtually all egg producers with 3,000 or more laying hens whose shell eggs are not processed with a treatment, such as pasteurization, to ensure their safety.

Producers with at least 3,000 but fewer than 50,000 laying hens must comply within 36 months after the rule’s publication. Producers with 50,000 or more laying hens must be in compliance with the rule within 12 months after its publication in the Federal Register.

Under the rule, egg producers must:

- Buy chicks and young hens only from suppliers who monitor for Salmonella bacteria

- Establish rodent, pest control, and biosecurity measures to prevent spread of bacteria throughout the farm by people and equipment

- Conduct testing in the poultry house for Salmonella enteritidis. If the tests find the bacterium, a representative sample of the eggs must be tested over an 8 week time period (4 tests at 2 week intervals); If any of the four egg tests is positive, the producer must further process the eggs to destroy the bacteria, or divert the eggs to a non-food use

- Clean and disinfect poultry houses that have tested positive for Salmonella enteritidis

- Refrigerate eggs at 45 degrees Fahrenheit temperature during storage and transportation no later than 36 hours after the eggs are laid.

Egg producers whose eggs receive treatments such as pasteurization still must comply with the refrigeration requirements. Similarly, certain persons such as distributors, packers, or truckers holding or transporting shell eggs also must comply with the refrigeration requirements.

To ensure compliance, egg producers must maintain a written Salmonella enteritidis prevention plan and records documenting their compliance. Producers (except those who have less than 3000 hens or who sell all their eggs directly to consumers) also must register with the FDA. The FDA will develop guidance and enforcement plans to help egg producers comply with the rule.

The FDA estimated that the rule would provide $1.4 billion in annual public health benefits, at an annual cost of $81 million to the regulated industry, or less than 1 cent per dozen eggs produced in the United States.

During the 1990s, the FDA and the U.S. Department of Agriculture implemented a series of post-egg production safety efforts such as refrigeration requirements designed to inhibit the growth of bacteria that may be in an egg. While these steps limited the growth of bacteria, they did not prevent the initial contamination from occurring.

The new rule is part of a coordinated strategy between the FDA and the USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS). The FDA and the FSIS will continue to work closely together to ensure that egg safety measures are consistent, coordinated, and complementary.

In addition to the new safety measures being taken by industry, consumers can reduce their risk of foodborne illness by following safe egg handling practices. The FDA reminds consumers to buy eggs that have been refrigerated, make sure eggs in the carton are clean and not cracked, and cook eggs and foods containing eggs thoroughly.

Source
U.S. Food and Drug Administration